Taoism

Taoism (also spelled Daoism) is based on the teachings of the Tao Te Ching, a short tract written in the 6th century BC in China. Its emphasis on spiritual harmony within the individual complements Confucianism's focus on social duty. The two great Chinese belief systems were founded at about the same time and continue to exist side-by-side in today's China.

There are two main strands and schools within Taoism, usually labeled "philosophical Taoism" (Tao-chia) and "religious Taoism" (Tao-chaio). Scholars now say the two are not as strongly distinguished as once thought, but the former generally focuses on the philosophical writings of Lao-Tzu, Chuang-Tzu and other early mystics while the latter emphasizes religious rituals aimed at attaining immortality.

Today, there are 20 million Taoists worldwide, most of whom live in China, Taiwan or Southeast Asia. Taoism is also increasingly influential in the West, especially in the fields of alternative medicine and martial arts like Tai.

The ancient Chinese religion of Taoism is not entirely distinct from Confucianism or Chinese folk religion, for all Chinese religion and philosophy operate within the same ancient worldview.

Since earliest times, Chinese thought has been characterized by an awareness of man's close relationship with nature and the universe, a cyclical view of time and the universe, veneration or worship of ancestors, the idea of Heaven, and belief in the divinity of the sovereign. 

Both Confucianism and Taoism operate within this worldview and incorporate many of its concepts. These two organized belief systems are best viewed as complementary rather than competitive. While Confucianism concerns itself with the social and moral side of life, Taoism focuses on the individual, spiritual life.

Ch'i (氣)

Ch'i (also spelled Chi or Qi) is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and culture. Found in Chinese traditional religion but especially Taoism, Ch'i literally means "air" or "breath," but as a concept it refers to the energy flow or life force that is said to pervade all things.

The nature of ch'i has always been a matter of debate in Chinese thinking. Some believe ch'i is a separate force from the physical world, while others think ch'i comes from physical matter. Still others, especially Chinese Buddhists and Taoists, hold that matter arises from ch'i.

The quality, quantity and balance of Ch'i is believed to be essential to maintaining health and achieving a long life. One author explains it this way:

"Qi is the basic material of all that exists. It animates life and furnishes functional power of events. Qi is the root of the human body; its quality and movement determine human health. There is a normal or healthy amount of qi in every person, and health manifests in its balance and harmony, its moderation and smoothness of flow." -- Livia Kohn

In addition to living a healthy life (both physically and psychologically), Ch'i can be regulated through practices like breath control, Ta'i Chi, massage and acupuncture. Nearly all techniques in traditional Chinese medicine are based on the concept of Ch'i.

Breath control is considered especially fundamental to balancing the levels of Ch'i in one's body. Controlled and meditative breathing, called hsing-ch'i, allows ch'i to permeate the entire body by imagining the breath as a visible current moving through the body. Another type of breathing exercise, t'ai-hsi, attempts to revert one's breathing to that of an fetus in the womb. This is considered especially powerful for longevity and immortality (especially in Taoism).

The traditional Chinese art of placement and arrangement of space called Feng Shui is also based on the flow of ch'i, as well as the five elements, yin and yang and other factors. The retention or dissipation of ch'i is believed to affect the health, wealth, energy level, luck and many other aspects of the occupants of the space. Color, shape and the physical location of each item in a space affects the flow of ch'i by slowing it down, redirecting it or accelerating it, which directly affects the ch'i of the occupants.

Death and Afterlife

In Taoism, life and death are merely two aspects of reality, the unchanging Tao. Death is simply a transformation from being to non-being; from yang to yin.

Taoism teaches that humans ought to accept life and death as complementary aspects of the Tao. Death should be neither feared nor desired.

"Since life and death are each other's companions, why worry about them? All beings are one." (Chuang-Tzu)

Taoist Immortals (仙)

The spiritual beings of primary importance in religious Taoism are the Immortals (Xian in Chinese). First introduced in the Chuang-Tzu and perhaps intended by the author to be allegorical, these super-humans or "perfected persons" (chen jen) came to be worshipped and emulated by Taoists. Some even seek to locate them, in the hope of asking them their secret of immortality.

In the Chuang-Tzu, these perfect beings dwell far away in an untroubled place, where they experience an effortless existence of physical freedom. They are ageless, eat nothing but air, drink nothing but dew, and enjoy the power of flight. They exemplify the Taoist virtue of spontaneity - they are nothing other than their essential nature.

The Eight Immortals

These powerful beings are especially known and revered in the group of Eight Immortals, who are said to have been born in the Tang Dynasty (618-907) or Song Dynasty (960-1279).

The Eight Immortals frequently appear in Chinese literature, mythology and art and they each have a symbol and special power. As a group, they are associated symbolically with good fortune as well as the "eight conditions of life" (youth, age, poverty, wealth, high rank, common people, feminine and masculine).

Name	Characteristics	Patron of	Symbol
Li T'ieh-kuai Li Tie Guai 李鐵拐	"Li with the iron crutch," a bad-tempered eccentric who carries a gourd containing magic and healing potions.	the sick	crutch and gourd
Chungli Ch'uan Zhongli Quan 鐘 離權	A stout man with only wisps of remaning hair but a beard reaching his waist. His fan has the power to raise the dead.	military men	fan
Lan Ts'ai-ho Lan Cai He 藍采和	A strolling singer depicted as a woman or young boy. A type of "holy fool," he is shown dressed in rags with a boot on only one foot.	florists	flower-basket
Chang Kuo-lao Zhang Guo Lao 張果老	A historical figure from the Tang Dynasty but better known through legends; shown as a ruler with his mule.	old men	bamboo tube-drum with iron sticks
Ho Hsien-ku He Xian Gu 何仙姑	The only female immortal; said to have lived in the late 7th century.		lotus blossom or flower basket, and occasionally with a peach and reed-organ.
Lu Tung-pin Lü Dong Bin 呂洞賓	Born 798 AD and honored as a scholar. Received from a fire dragon a sword enabling him to hide from death. He is the most widely known of the Immortals and considered the de facto leader.	barbers	Fly-whisker, scholar's robes
Han Hsiang-tzu Han Xiang Zi 韓湘子	Said to be the nephew of the Tang Dynasty statesman and scholar Han Yu. He is the epitome of the peaceful mountain-dweller.	musicians	flute, flowers and peach
Ts'ao Kuo-ch'iu Cao Guojiu 曹國舅	Said to have been connected with the Sung Imperial family.	actors	castanets or a jade tablet of admission to cout

The Purpose of Life

The ideal person in philosophical Taoism is the sage who understands and lives in accordance with the Tao. Knowing that all opposites are relative and interdependent, and that the best way to live is in harmony with the natural course of things (the Tao), a Taoist does not struggle, oppose, or strive.

Instead, the sage practices wu-wei, or "non-action." In the Tao Te Ching, this is the central virtue of the wise ruler. Wu-wei does not mean doing nothing or doing things only in moderation. To practice wu-wei is to so orient oneself with the Tao that one's actions go unnoticed. "Perfect activity leaves no track behind it; perfect speech is like a jade worker whose tool leaves no mark." In yet another paradox, wu-wei "never acts, yet there is nothing it does not do."

The focus of most religious Taoism is attaining immortality. This can have various meanings: eternal life, longevity of life, or attainment of superhuman physical abilities. Taoists have sought longevity by a variety of methods, such as:

• Focusing attention on the body through diet, exercises, and mindfulness
• Regulating the breath (ch'i), circulating its power deliberately to all parts of the body
• Harnessing sexual energy, especially by retaining semen and sending its power throughout the body
• Exploring alchemy with the goal of finding the elixir of immortality
• Behaving in a moral way that is in harmony with the Tao
• Searching for the Isles of the Blessed, where the Immortals dwell and may be persuaded to share their secrets of immortality

The Tao (道)

The ultimate reality in Taoism is the Tao, or Way. Broadly defined, the Tao is the mysterious natural order of the universe. But paradoxically, what the sages have most often said about the Tao is that nothing can be said about it. As the Tao Te Ching puts it:

The way that can be spoken of
Is not the constant Way;
The name that can be named
Is not the constant Name.

The nameless was at the beginning of heaven and earth;
The named was the mother of myriad creatures.
Hence always rid yourself of desires in order to observe its secrets;
But always allow yourself to have desires in order to observe its manifestations.

These two are the same
But diverge in name as they issue forth.
Being the same they are called mysteries,
Mystery upon mystery -
The gateway of the manifold secrets.

The Tao-Te Ching goes on to say the Tao is

something formlessly fashioned, that existed before Heaven and Earth....Its name we do not know; Tao is the byname we give it. Were I forced to say to what class of things it belongs I should call it Immense.

In Chinese thinking, to give something a name (ming) is to assign it a place in the universe. This cannot be done with the Tao, as it pervades and encompasses all. 

The Tao has no characteristics, yet it is not nothingness. In fact, it is better understood as "everythingness," as it contains within itself all potential characteristics. It encompasses both Being (yu) and Non-Being (wu). "In its mode of being Unseen, we will see its mysteries; in the mode of the Seen, we will see its boundaries." 

The Tao encompasses all opposite and complementary forces, which are collectively referred to as yin and yang. As represented in the familiar Great Polarity symbol, yin and yang are interdependent and contain within themselves the seed of the other. Yin is associated with darkness, femininity, passivity and water, while yang is light, masculinity, activity and air. Yin and yang are always in perfect balance within the Tao. The goal of the Taoist, therefore, is to keep these opposites in balance within his or her own life.

The Tao is further characterized by tzu-jan, which is difficult to translate directly but is usually rendered "spontaneity" or "self-so." The self-so is unconditioned and uninfluenced; it is nothing other than itself.

This, in turn, is the ideal of the sage-ruler in the Tao Te Ching. He does not strive, he does not intervene, but acts in such a way that "everyone throughout the country says, 'It happened of its own accord' (tzu-jan)."